We have already seen that Jean Guay purchased his plot of land from the Jesuits after having rented and cleared it. Nevertheless, he paid a minimal annual rent to the lordling. In return, he had to clear and till at least one acre and a half per year, and often he would clear more than that, because whatever he cleared remained his property. He worked hard. He was an early riser by nature. The early hours of the day stimulated his energy.

The regular work hours were from sunrise to darkness. The settler was his own boss, but this timetable came naturally to him.

He cleared a part of the land to sow what would be necessary to feed his family and cattle. The rest would be kept as a forest in order to supply the logs necessary to heat his house and used in the construction of buildings. Maple trees were saved to supply sugar and syrup. The settler built his house, stables, barn and other necessary constructions by himself. Even though the Canadian soil was generous, he had to be satisfied with feeding his family and cattle, for it was impossible to sell any surpluses at that time.

The year was divided into two unequal parts, which were in turn broken into cycles called times. During the summer, which went from June to September, there was the sowing time, hay time and crop time. These few weeks meant constant labor, exhaustion without recess, because not only rainy or cold days would delay his labor, numerous sudden storms in August, Sundays and other religious holidays, of which there were quite a few were rigidly enforced. On leap years beginning on a Saturday or Sunday, there were 53. If we add 37 legal holidays, it meant there were 89 to 90 compulsory idle days.

The settler knew that about half of the holidays were during the most intensive labor period; between the sowing and the reaping, and only about two-thirds of working days were left. It goes without saying that he had to make the most of these, and that every hour was precious. Each member of his family had to lend a hand, wife and children. The New France woman was a hard worker observed Kahn; especially the farmer's wife. She was everywhere; in the fields, in the prairies, in the stables, in the house; no labor was too hard for her. Rising with dawn during this short period, everybody worked until darkness. Meals were light, quick and irregular.

On days of extreme heat, the pioneer would allow himself a short nap, about half an hour, in the shadow of a cart or of a tree. When the temperature did not allow hay cutting, the farmer took care of small chores that were neglected when the weather was good. He repaired fences, maintained his equipment, sharpened scythes, excavated ditches, etc. The wife and children would weed the vegetable garden etc.

The organization of the farm

The Canadian farmer used the same tools as the European farmer. At first, he had limited manual tools. Later he used animal drawn instruments, and plows. The first manual instruments were the pickax, the hoe, the rake, the scythe, the pitchfork, the flail and the van. At first the pioneer of New France used the pickax to plow. Oxen were still scarce, as was the wheel-plow.

On June 25, 1647, an animal, unknown to the natives, arrived in Quebec: a horse. It was sent from France by the directors of the Company of the "Habitants" as a gift to Mr. De Montmagny, governor of the colony who had expressed his regret for not having one. The Hurons visiting Quebec admired its elegance and agility.

Twelve other horses arrived as late as 1665, drawn from the King's stables. In 1670 another shipment came and its subjects distributed as a reward to the landlords who favored the clearing and land tilling. It would take a few more years before horses were available to every farmer.

The French billhook was used to mow peas; modified to fill local needs it became the "crocheton". Wheat, rye and hay mowing was done with the well-sharpened sickle and with the scythe. The pitchfork was ordinarily made of wood and had two teeth. It was made from tree branches, mostly ash. The three fork iron pitchfork would come later. The flail was used to thresh grain and the sift, the van and the sieve were used for winnowing. The first two instruments belonged to the farmer while the sieve ordinarily was the property of the landlord who also operated the flourmill. Six pennies (deniers) per bushel were paid for its use.

The barns were so small that hay, clover and other fodder were stacked outside. Grains only could be stored inside. The flailing was done during the winter months when flour was required, and it was one of the settler's chores saved for such time. The grain laid dormant under the soil during the rigorous winter months, and this method produced such good results that even the farmers in France considered using it, as the State Secretary in charge of the colonies suggested to Governor Vaudreuil and to Raudot, the Intendant in 1709. It was not always possible to plant the wheat in the fall, because the cold weather would set in abruptly and sometimes the ground froze early. Then the settler would immediately think of making provision for stove wood that had to be felled, sawed and cut to size, for the winter months. This chore was performed in October, before the high snows came,

It was also a time for the maintenance and the storage of carriages and farm instruments. And then the farmer would stack soil and straws on the foundations of the house. When the first snow fell, he realized that he had not had any time off since June. But he was satisfied. He might not have been richer than the previous year, but he would be able to feed and keep his family warm during the coming months.

Winter chores

Winter favored the refinement of the social behavior of the Canadian settler. Little by little he became civilized, becoming conscious of his true value. His family life benefited from this evolution, he rested and performed family and domestic chores every day. Even his cattle were becoming friendly to him for they were taken care of daily, were fed three times a day in the stable where it would be confined until the first days of summer. With the exception of these chores, the pioneer's life evolved around the family. On stormy days he had to clear pathways so as not to be cut off from his neighbors. Sitting by the fireside, he took care of menial chores that required craftsmanship, intelligence and reflection. Jean Guay whose craft was woodworking, built furniture for the house; tables, chairs, chests, beds, baby cribs and toys for the children.

This casual ambiance fashioned a new soul for the settler and his wife was an important player in that process. Jeanne taught the children and her husband how to read and write because a settler who could at least sign his name was respected in the parish. She oversaw the daily religious duties. Her attitude was an example to the family. She wove, she spun, cut and sewed clothes and dresses, bed covers and carpets. She exercised her cleverness in preparing meals that had to be varied, plentiful and appetizing, because the table was one of the principal attractions during this apparently inactive period.

Winter was an occasion to entertain friends and to celebrate anniversaries or holidays. Wedding celebrations sometimes lasted 4 or 5 days and were occasions to rejoice. It was important to gather with these parents or friends who were established in faraway settlements. Every evening, in turn, the parents of the spouses would be hosting the guests. They dined, danced, sang and drank until the early hours of the morning. The banquet, which would start at seven o'clock, would last some four hours. The host would be called stingy if at the end of the meal, there would not be as much food on the table as when everybody sat down.

When the banquet was over, dances and popular songs that maintained the French tradition took place.

Clothing

The French settler soon realized that clothes worn in Europe would not be proper in New France. Very soon after his arrival he was compelled to wear clothes that the harsh climate and new way of life called for. He dressed in the native fashion and made his own work clothes, avoiding as much as possible the monopoly that the textile merchants had established.

As early as 1660, deer and moose skin gloves, with the fur on the inside, were the ordinary staples, together with seal skin belts, bear and caribou leather coats. Progressively he adopted native products. He could not afford any refinement in his clothing. An officer from the mother country noted, with contempt, that the settlers were badly dressed and that they made their own working clothes.

In spite of Intendant Talon's efforts to favor sheep raising, it appeared difficult and precarious because wolves and other predators were on the lookout in the forest. Wool was scarce and other products like linen and hemp had to be used. But linen and hemp clothing did not provide warmth and had to be lined with leather or fur. Wool was used for undergarments. The settler wore wool undergarments during summer and winter because wool absorbs sweat and protects against sudden chills.

Making winter clothes and bed covers kept the woman of the house very busy, especially if there were many children. Because the houses were not heated during the night, warm bed covers were needed. At first, bear pelts were used and then the Canadian woman learned to weave heavy blankets called "catalogne", and using old clothes that she cut and assembled she created multicolor patchwork covers.

The Canadian costume

Even if there were no typical Canadian costume, engravings and drawings show the settler wearing a woolen cap with an acorn, a colorful woven belt and fur lined leather boots.

Food and cuisine

During Jacques Cartier's first trip to Quebec, he spent the winter in Stadacona on the St-Charles River. His staff was decimated by scurvy due to insufficient and improper foor. Many lost their lives because they were not judicious about stocking food for the winter. Man cannot be fed exclusively with peas and biscuits during the harsh Canadian winter. Sailors disliked even the frozen fish that was a healthy staple of the natives.

The Canadian winter required a rich and robust diet. Gradually, the settler realized this important fact. If he had to anticipate the need for logs for heating and warm clothing for the long winter months, then stocking the same type of food as the natives was equally important. The appropriate food was meat and other related products. The Canadian cuisine was born, but others would criticize it because of its lack of refinement.

There was an abundance of good food in New France. Wild animals were numerous. Moose meat was rich and it replaced beef and lamb for a long while. They also enjoyed caribou, deer, porcupine, hare and beaver, also precious for its fur. Birds were also plentiful; field ducks, ducks, partridges and others that fed the gourmet.

Fish too were numerous and had the finest of flesh. The Saint Lawrence River had a variety of different salt-water fish and also tasty river fish; cod, salmon, haddock, sturgeon, bar, shad and others that filled the rivers and lakes. The most common fish found was the eel that was eaten either smoked or salty. At the beginning the colony lacked some basic elements like bread, salt and milk.

Other staples were added as the clearing of land made it possible to sow wheat, oat, barley, peas, beans, asparagus and others. Maize, the native cereal was also adopted by the settlers. They called it Indian Wheat. It was easy to grow and was considered good basic food for men and animals. It was also easy to cook.

Many wild berries were also available, varied and exquisite and were an important source of income. They were eaten naturally or as preserve or jelly. They included strawberries, raspberries, wild plums, blackberries, gooseberries, wild cherries and blueberries. In 1608 when Champlain founded Québec, he planted a few apple trees that he had brought from Normandy. They grew well in the Canadian climate, so much so that they were still in full production some 25 years later.

Free and easy life of the settler

Interestingly it is possible to compare the value of the Canadian settler and his counterpart from Normandy at the same time. During the XVIIth century a soldier from the Carignan Regiment decided to stay in New France. He married a "King's Daughter", Jeanne Deschars, originally from Picardie, and received a concession in Batiscan. His wife died in 1688 and as was customary, an inventory of his worth was made. On his lot of 3 "acres" wide and 60 long, Collet had 33 "acres" cleared and tilled, a house, a barn and a stable; these building were valued about 1200 pounds. His farm instruments and other goods were as follows: 2 oxen worth 110 pounds, 2 young bulls at 40 pounds, one cow; 30 pounds, 2 other cows; 25 pounds each, 2 pigs at 11 pounds each, and a listing of various farm and kitchen instruments. 3 sickles, 3 plowshares, a pair of plow wheels, 2 axes, 1 hammer, 1 trowel, 3 borers, 2 chests with locks and keys, one pig lard barrel, and other barrels, pots, pans and pails.

In Revue des Questions Historiques, 200 years later, it is reported that Pierre B. had rented two farms; one in Etainhus, France had 40 acres and cost him 300 pounds per year; the other in Angerville - L'Orcher, had 38 acres and the lease price was also 300 pounds. The inventory lists the following: a lorry worth 85 pounds, a cart; 20 pounds, I bushel of wheat; 2 pounds 5 sols, 1 bushel of barley; 1 pound 5 sols, 1 mare; 65 pounds, 1 two year old foal at 40 pounds, 1 pig; 7 pounds, 1 sheep; 6 pounds, 14 hens and 1 rooster; 4 pounds and 2 sols. (sols would be Cents)

Taking into account that in order to enjoy his farm, Jean Collet only had to pay a small rent of 2 bushels of wheat, 1 capon or its value in money and 2 farthings for the lease, we see that his obligations were smaller than his Normandy counterpart, and that his worth was at least equal or even superior.

At the end of his life, the New-France settler was richer in real estate than real money. He quickly learned to live philosophically, satisfying himself more simply, relying more on his own imagination and organizing his life in a relative comfort. Economic conditions did not allow him to save money. The very few sales he could make were reimbursed in the form of services or other services or other merchandises. He could not afford any luxury.

The Settler's House

At first the settlers' house was built with lumber in accordance with the climate. Heavy snowfalls required a very steep roof with strong rafters. Generally the Quebec house was rectangular, of average depth, with shuttered windows and attic windows. After trying different ways, a standard was established. A foundation of stones was first built, larger than the frame of the house and excavated below the floor to allow for air circulation. In preparation for the winter, soil and straw would be packed tight on the bottom part of the house to insulate it. Special words were created to describe these operations, such as renchaussage, solage et al.

The house was then built on this foundation. However small the house was, the carpenters had to build very strong corners, solid joist structure, fashioned with a large chimney and a thatched roof over two layers of planks. The house would be built with the rear wall facing north. Very few openings if any, were on that side because of the prevailing winds during winter. On a foundation built on the ground, the hearth and the chimney were erected. The walls fashioned with round logs notched at the ends were insulated between with tarred oakum and covered with mortar on the outside. Afterwards the walls were whitewashed. The interior walls were covered with lathes on which plaster or roughcast made with clay was then applied.

The house in Quebec was different from that of Montreal. Quebec's was of the Normandy style. The "savage" (Indian) was not frequently seen in Quebec. In fact the settler felt safe. While in Montreal, outpost of the civilization to the West, the Indian was fighting a merciless guerrilla. The settler was always on the lookout. Each house in Montreal was built like a domestic fortress. Square, massive, with heavy chimneys, it was built of stone joined with mortar. Its walls were pierced with openings hidden under heavy shutters. The settler used these openings to shoot at the Indian who was always scouting around for a scalp.

The interior

The interior of the house filled the needs of a large family. Here is how the historian J. Edmond Roy, described them: once past the front door, we stood in the kitchen that was also the Master Bedroom. On one wall stood the large fireplace and chimney with the open hearth made of flat stones. In and around the hearth were the pot hanger, a fire-dog, a small shovel to remove ashes, a large cauldron, cooking pots, frying pans, dripping pans, grills, an iron kettle and an assortment of utensils. The woman of the house had a wide assortment of tools available to her, at all times. On the ledge over the fireplace stood irons, a tin lantern and candleholders.

In the back of the room stood the large bed used by the masters of the house, which was solemnly described in notary's acts as the community bed. It was a monument surmounted by a canopy. On the bed were a straw mattress, a featherbed, wool bed blankets and sheets, pillows, quilt and sometimes a bear or moose pelt. The children's cribs and beds stand by the masters' bed. There was also a table, 5 or 6 wooden chairs with straw or animal skin braiding. A spinning wheel was also sitting near the hearth together with a loom, a bread hutch, a table, 2 or 3 wooden chests, one drawer chest and nearer to the door, a bench with wooden pails.

It was the meeting place where men, women and children, house or farm utensils converge. It was also the place where food was prepared whether for the table or for the farm animals. The fireplace warmed clothes and farm tools were thawed out in this room.

The settler's house was sturdily built in order to withstand bad weather, gust of winds, heavy snows and rains. The house was solid, built by good workers with the best of materials available.

The barn, of which the stable was an integral part, was as important and necessary as the house. Its dimensions were large because it had to store fodder for the 6 or 7 months the animals lived in it. A typical barn would have been 20 meters long by 7 meters wide and its construction also had to take into account, the weight of the snow, therefore it had a steep roof.

The beams were solidly tied together and two vertical beams were used from the ground up to the highest point of the roof. Wooden pegs were used on every rafter. Beams stood about 20 or 30 centimeters apart and were also tied with pegs. The stable necessitated special methods of construction. Every farm animal would spend the winter months inside; horses oxen, cows, pigs, hens and sheep. Therefore walls had to be thick and well caulked. Good ventilation was necessary to prevent epidemics, especially in February and March, when females give birth.

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